Some implementation details¶

In this chapter we will present some implementation details. This is far from complete, but we deemed it necessary to clarify some things that would otherwise be hard to understand.

Single Sum Virial in GROMACS¶

The virial \(\Xi\) can be written in full tensor form as:

(477)¶\[\Xi~=~-\frac{1}{2}~\sum_{i < j}^N~\mathbf{r}_{ij}\otimes\mathbf{F}_{ij}\]

where \(\otimes\) denotes the direct product of two vectors. [1] When this is computed in the inner loop of an MD program 9 multiplications and 9 additions are needed. [2]

Here it is shown how it is possible to extract the virial calculation from the inner loop 177.

Virial¶

In a system with periodic boundary conditions, the periodicity must be taken into account for the virial:

(478)¶\[\Xi~=~-\frac{1}{2}~\sum_{i < j}^{N}~\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n\otimes\mathbf{F}_{ij}\]

where \(\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n\) denotes the distance vector of the nearest image of atom \(i\) from atom \(j\). In this definition we add a shift vector \(\delta_i\) to the position vector \(\mathbf{r}_i\) of atom \(i\). The difference vector \(\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n\) is thus equal to:

(479)¶\[\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n~=~\mathbf{r}_i+\delta_i-\mathbf{r}_j\]

or in shorthand:

(480)¶\[\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n~=~\mathbf{r}_i^n-\mathbf{r}_j\]

In a triclinic system, there are 27 possible images of \(i\); when a truncated octahedron is used, there are 15 possible images.

Virial from non-bonded forces¶

Here the derivation for the single sum virial in the non-bonded force routine is given. There are a couple of considerations that are special to GROMACS that we take into account:

When calculating short-range interactions, we apply the minimum image convention and only consider the closest image of each neighbor - and in particular we never allow interactions between a particle and any of its periodic images. For all the equations below, this means \(i \neq j\).
In general, either the \(i\) or \(j\) particle might be shifted to a neighbor cell to get the closest interaction (shift \(\delta_{ij}\)). However, with minimum image convention there can be at most 27 different shifts for particles in the central cell, and for typical (very short-ranged) biomolecular interactions there are typically only a few different shifts involved for each particle, not to mention that each interaction can only be present for one shift.
For the GROMACS nonbonded interactions we use this to split the neighborlist of each \(i\) particle into multiple separate lists, where each list has a constant shift \(\delta_i\) for the \(i\) partlcle. We can represent this as a sum over shifts (for which we use index \(s\)), with the constraint that each particle interaction can only contribute to one of the terms in this sum, and the shift is no longer dependent on the \(j\) particles. For any sum that does not contain complex dependence on \(s\), this means the sum trivially reduces to just the sum over \(i\) and/or \(j\).
To simplify some of the sums, we replace sums over \(j<i\) with double sums over all particles (remember, \(i \neq j\)) and divide by 2.

Starting from the above definition of the virial, we then get

(481)¶\[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} \Xi &~=~&-{\frac{1}{2}}~\sum_{i < j}^{N}~{\mathbf r}^n_{ij} \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{2}}~\sum_{i < j}^{N}~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{ij} - {\mathbf r}_j \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\sum_{j=1}^{N}~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{ij} - {\mathbf r}_j \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{j=1}^{N}~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} - {\mathbf r}_j \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{i=}^{N}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{j=1}^{N}~\left( \left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} -{\mathbf r}_j \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} \right) \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{j=1}^N ~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} + {\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{j=1}^{N} {\mathbf r}_j \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{j=1}^N ~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} + {\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\sum_{j=1}^{N} {\mathbf r}_j \otimes {\mathbf F}_{ij} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} \right) \otimes ~\sum_{j=1}^N {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} + {\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{j=1}^N {\mathbf r}_j \otimes \sum_{i=1}^{N} {\mathbf F}_{ij} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} \right) \otimes ~\sum_{j=1}^N {\mathbf F}_{ij,s} - {\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{j=1}^N {\mathbf r}_j \otimes \sum_{i=1}^{N} {\mathbf F}_{ji} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\sum_{s}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\left( {\mathbf r}_i + \delta_{i,s} \right) \otimes {\mathbf F}_{i,s} - {\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{j=1}^N~{\mathbf r}_j \otimes {\mathbf F}_{j} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{4}}~\left(\sum_{i=1}^{N}~{\mathbf r}_i \otimes {\mathbf F}_{i} + \sum_{j=1}^N~{\mathbf r}_j \otimes {\mathbf F}_{j} \right) - {\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{s}~\sum_{i=1}^{N} \delta_{i,s} \otimes {\mathbf F}_{i,s} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{2}}\sum_{i=1}^{N}~{\mathbf r}_i \otimes {\mathbf F}_{i} -{\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{s}~\sum_{i=1}^{N}~\delta_{i,s} \otimes {\mathbf F}_{i,s} \nonumber \\ &~=~&-{\frac{1}{2}}\sum_{i=1}^{N}~{\mathbf r}_i \otimes {\mathbf F}_{i} -{\frac{1}{4}}\sum_{s}~\delta_{s} \otimes {\mathbf F}_{s} \nonumber \\ &~=~&\Xi_0 + \Xi_1\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

In the second-last stage, we have used the property that each shift vector itself does not depend on the coordinates of particle \(i\), so it is possible to sum up all forces corresponding to each shift vector (in the nonbonded kernels), and then just use a sum over the different shift vectors outside the kernels. We have also used

(482)¶\[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} \mathbf{F}_i&~=~&\sum_{j=1}^N~\mathbf{F}_{ij} \\ \mathbf{F}_j&~=~&\sum_{i=1}^N~\mathbf{F}_{ji}\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

which is the total force on \(i\) with respect to \(j\). Because we use Newton’s Third Law:

(483)¶\[\mathbf{F}_{ij}~=~-\mathbf{F}_{ji}\]

we must, in the implementation, double the term containing the shift \(\delta_i\). Similarly, in a few places we have summed the shift-dependent force over all shifts to come up with the total force per interaction or particle.

This separates the total virial \(\Xi\) into a component \(\Xi_0\) that is a single sum over particles, and a second component \(\Xi_1\) that describes the influence of the particle shifts, and that is only a sum over the different shift vectors.

The intra-molecular shift (mol-shift)¶

For the bonded forces and SHAKE it is possible to make a mol-shift list, in which the periodicity is stored. We simple have an array mshift in which for each atom an index in the shiftvec array is stored.

The algorithm to generate such a list can be derived from graph theory, considering each particle in a molecule as a bead in a graph, the bonds as edges.

Represent the bonds and atoms as bidirectional graph
Make all atoms white
Make one of the white atoms black (atom \(i\)) and put it in the central box
Make all of the neighbors of \(i\) that are currently white, gray
Pick one of the gray atoms (atom \(j\)), give it the correct periodicity with respect to any of its black neighbors and make it black
Make all of the neighbors of \(j\) that are currently white, gray
If any gray atom remains, go to [5]
If any white atom remains, go to [3]

Using this algorithm we can

optimize the bonded force calculation as well as SHAKE
calculate the virial from the bonded forces in the single sum method again

Find a representation of the bonds as a bidirectional graph.

Virial from Covalent Bonds¶

Since the covalent bond force gives a contribution to the virial, we have:

(484)¶\[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} b &~=~& \|\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n\| \\ V_b &~=~& \frac{1}{2} k_b(b-b_0)^2 \\ \mathbf{F}_i &~=~& -\nabla V_b \\ &~=~& k_b(b-b_0)\frac{\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n}{b} \\ \mathbf{F}_j &~=~& -\mathbf{F}_i\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

The virial contribution from the bonds then is:

(485)¶\[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} \Xi_b &~=~& -\frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{r}_i^n\otimes\mathbf{F}_i~+~\mathbf{r}_j\otimes\mathbf{F}_j) \\ &~=~& -\frac{1}{2}\mathbf{r}_{ij}^n\otimes\mathbf{F}_i\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

Virial from SHAKE¶

An important contribution to the virial comes from shake. Satisfying the constraints a force G that is exerted on the particles “shaken.” If this force does not come out of the algorithm (as in standard SHAKE) it can be calculated afterward (when using leap-frog) by:

(486)¶\[\begin{split}\begin{aligned} \Delta\mathbf{r}_i&~=~&{\mathbf{r}_i}(t+{\Delta t})- [\mathbf{r}_i(t)+{\bf v}_i(t-\frac{{\Delta t}}{2}){\Delta t}+\frac{\mathbf{F}_i}{m_i}{\Delta t}^2] \\ {\bf G}_i&~=~&\frac{m_i{\Delta}{\mathbf{r}_i}}{{\Delta t}^2i}\end{aligned}\end{split}\]

This does not help us in the general case. Only when no periodicity is needed (like in rigid water) this can be used, otherwise we must add the virial calculation in the inner loop of SHAKE.

When it is applicable the virial can be calculated in the single sum way:

(487)¶\[\Xi~=~-\frac{1}{2}\sum_i^{N_c}~\mathbf{r}_i\otimes\mathbf{F}_i\]

where \(N_c\) is the number of constrained atoms.

Optimizations¶

Here we describe some of the algorithmic optimizations used in GROMACS, apart from parallelism.

Inner Loops for Water¶

GROMACS uses special inner loops to calculate non-bonded interactions for water molecules with other atoms, and yet another set of loops for interactions between pairs of water molecules. There highly optimized loops for two types of water models. For three site models similar to SPC 80, i.e.:

There are three atoms in the molecule.
The whole molecule is a single charge group.
The first atom has Lennard-Jones (sec. The Lennard-Jones interaction) and Coulomb (sec. Coulomb interaction) interactions.
Atoms two and three have only Coulomb interactions, and equal charges.

These loops also works for the SPC/E 178 and TIP3P 128 water models. And for four site water models similar to TIP4P 128:

There are four atoms in the molecule.
The whole molecule is a single charge group.
The first atom has only Lennard-Jones (sec. The Lennard-Jones interaction) interactions.
Atoms two and three have only Coulomb (sec. Coulomb interaction) interactions, and equal charges.
Atom four has only Coulomb interactions.

The benefit of these implementations is that there are more floating-point operations in a single loop, which implies that some compilers can schedule the code better. However, it turns out that even some of the most advanced compilers have problems with scheduling, implying that manual tweaking is necessary to get optimum performance. This may include common-sub-expression elimination, or moving code around.